(19) Verbs and their Grammatical Categories.

(Tense, Voice, Mood, Aspect; Restriction in Continuous Forms with Particular Semantic Classes).

(19.1) Grammatical Categories of Verbs

- E: tense, aspect, mood, voice, person, number

- primary verbal features: tense, aspect, mood, voice

- secondary nominal features: subject-verb agreement in person and number

- verbal categories manifested in: (a) flexion/(b) auxiliaries

- CZ: tense, aspect, mood, voice, person, number, gender, conjugation

(19.2) The Category of Tense/Aspect

(19.2.1) Time versus Tense

- time = a universal non-linguistic concept divided into past/present/future

- tense = the correspondence btw the form of the verb and our concept of time

- present tense: actions simultaneous wrt the time of utterance

- past tense: actions preceding the time of utterance

- future tense: actions following the time of utterance

- tense => a deictic category (<> some pronouns/adverbs)

(19.2.2) Tense/Aspect System in English/Czech

- CZ: 3 tenses (past, present, future) + 1 aspect (perfect) = 5 verbal forms (combination PERF + PRES impossible)

- E: 3 tenses + 2 aspects (perfect, progressive) = 12 verbal forms modified wrt tense/aspect complex

- CZ: most verbs morphologically marked either as having no aspect [nedokonavé] or having the perfect aspect [dokonavé]

- CZ: aspect = an inherent verbal category

- E: base verb forms neutral wrt aspect, only the progressive forms marked for aspect

- E: the PROG = a tense + aspect category x the PERF = a tense category (Dušková)

- aspect = the manner of experiencing the verbal action either as completed or in progress

- perfect aspect: have (in different forms accord. to the structure) + passive participle

- progressive aspect: be (in different forms according to the structure) + present participle of the lexical V

(19.2.3) The Verbal Forms

(a) simple verbal forms (synthetic)

- positive declaratives in present simple/past simple

- present simple: distinction btw 3^rd per. SG x oth. persons SG

- past simple: no distinctions wrt to person/number

- need do-support

(b) complex verbal forms (analytical/periphrastic)

- formed by AUX(s) + participle/infinitive of the lexical V

- present perfect: have + passive participle of the lexical V

- past perfect: had + passive participle of the lexical V

- future simple: shall/will + bare infinitive of the lexical V 

- future perfect: shall/will + have + passive participle of the lexical V

- contain AUX => do not need do-support

(19.3) The Category of Mood

- mood = relates the verbal action to conditions as certainty, obligation, necessity and possibility

- the indicative, imperative, conditional, subjunctive

(19.3.1) The Indicative

- indicative = the basic mood of finite verb forms

- statements and questions

(19.3.2) The Imperative

(19.3.2.1) Formation

(a) 2^nd per. SG and PL

- the base verb form: say it again!

- negation with do-support: don’t say it!

(b) oth. persons

- periphrastic form

- let + N/PRO in the object case + bare infinitive: let him/us/them say it!

- negation with or without do-support: don’t let’s go there/let’s not go there

- non-contracted forms with different meaning: let us go [allow us to go] x let’s go [come]

(c) emphatic do

- politeness: do have another cup of coffee!

- impatience: do stop talking!

- persuading: do help me with the maths problem!

(d) 2^nd per. PRO/indefinite PRO + base verb form

- the form of indicative in the function of imperative: you wait here! everyone keep quiet!

(e) question tags

- will you? won’t you? can you? can’t you? could you? would you?

- added for politeness: come in, will you?/come in, won’t you?

(f) double imperatives

- joined by and: go and buy yourself a new pair of shoes!

- AmE: go + bare infinitive: go fetch some water!

(19.3.2.2) Function

- commands, requests, suggestions: follow me!

- warnings: look out!

- directions: take the second turning on the left and then turn right!

- instructions: bake for 20 minutes!

- prohibitions (public notices): keep off the grass!

- advice: never speak to strangers!

- invitations: come and have dinner with us!

- offers: have a cigarette!

(19.3.3) The Conditional

(19.3.3.1) Formation

(a) the present conditional

- would/should + bare infinitive

(b) the past conditional

- would/should + have + passive participle

- = would/should + PRES PERF

(19.3.3.2) Conditional Clauses

(a) real x NOT conditional

- future (always real): if + PRES > FUT (if it rains tomorrow, I will not work)

- present real: if + PRES > PRES (if it rains now, they are not here)

- past real: if + PAST SIMPLE > PAST SIMPLE (if it rained yesterday, they didn’t work)

- mixed pattern, e.g. past condition, present result: if + PAST SIMPLE > PRES (if it rained yesterday, the barrel is full of water now)

(b) unreal = conditional

- present unreal: if + PAST SIMPLE > would + bare infinitive (if it rained now, I wouldn’t be here)

- past unreal: if + PAST PERF > would + have + passive participle (if it had rained yesterday, I wouldn’t have gone there)

- mixed pattern, e.g. past condition, present result: if + PAST PERF > would + bare infinitive (if they had done it yesterday, they wouldn’t be busy today)

- polite request: if + would + bare infinitive > would + bare infinitive (if you would make the arrangements for me, I would be very grateful)

- low degree of possibility: if + should + bare infinitive > PRES [usually imperative] (if you should have any difficulty in getting spare parts, ring this number)

(19.3.4) The Subjunctive

(a) the present subjunctive

- the base verb form with all per. SG and PL

- structure: it is ADJ that >subjunctive (it is vital that an agreement be reached)

- idiosyncratic formulas: be that as it may...; God save the Queen!; come what may...

(b) the past subjunctive

- past simple, the verb be > were in all per. SG and PL

- structure: I wish/if only (I wish I were dead)

(19.4) The Category of Voice

- voice: the active/the passive

(19.4.1) The Active Voice

(1) regular flexion > productive/open class: 4 verbal forms

(2) irregular flexion > unproductive/closed class: 4 or 5 verbal forms

- irregular means of flexion manifested only in the past participle/passive participle forms

- bare form: null suffix

- 3^rd per. SG present tense form: -(e)s suffix <> homonymous with the regular plural of N, observes the same rules for pronunciation/spelling x no change of the word-final -y

- present participle/gerund form: -ing suffix <> the same rules for pronunciation/spelling as the grading of ADJ/ADV

- past simple/past participle/passive participle: -ed suffix <> pronounced [id] after [t, d], pronounced [t] after voiceless consonants, pronounced [d] after voiced consonants and vowels

(19.4.2) Passivisation

- active clause structure: subject/agent + predicate + object/patient

- passive clause structure: subject/patient + predicate + object/agent

(a) the direct object shifts to the position of the subject and adopts the subject case

(b) the verb adopts the passive form: the finite form of be + the passive participle

(c) the agent may be expressed as a by-phrase

- inanimate subjects needn’t become by-adjuncts: she is interested in sculpture; I’m surprised at his attitude; we’re delighted at the prospect; I’m worried about it

(19.4.3) Functions of the Passive

(1) demoting the Agent of the active verb

- deagentisation

- FSP: Patient becomes theme, predicate becomes rheme

(a) Agent is general: it is believed/it can’t be explained

(b) Agent is obvious: the streets are swept everyday/the house was searched

(c) Agent is unknown: the minister was murdered/the bank was robbed

(d) authorial: as has been stated before/this was studied in detail

(e) none: the city is situated/the two forms are distributed equally

(2) focusing the Agent of the active verb

- the Agent becomes a by-adjunct

- FSP: Patient becomes theme, Agent becomes rheme

- the phenomena was first illustrated by XY/the minister was murdered by XY

(3) objectivity = to report statements/disclaim responsibility: he is reported to kill the minister/overtime rates are being reduced

(4) stylistics = to avoid awkward sentence: when their mother was ill, neighbours looked after the children > ...the children were looked after by neighbours

(19.5) Nominal Features – Person and Number

- CZ: V morphologically marked for agreement in person/gender/number with subject

- E: secondary nominal features: subject-verb agreement in person and number

- morphological distinction btw 3^rd per. SG present (-(e)s) x oth. per. SG or PL present (0)

- x not the case with modals

- x the AUX be: special form also for 1^st per. SG present (am)

- no morphological distinction with past simple