(15) Pronouns.
(Types of Pronouns; Their Formal and Semantic Properties; Their Syntactic Functions).
(15.1) Characteristics of Pronouns
(15.1.1) Pronouns versus Nouns
- pronouns = replace nouns/noun phrases => lack a lexical meaning of their own
- PRO in contrast to N
(a) semantics
- a closed class system
(b) morphology
- case contrast for subject x object case
- person distinction
- gender contrast
(c) syntax
- determiners
- nominals
- functions of ADJ
- functions of ADV
(15.1.2) Grammatical Categories
- case, gender, number, person
(1) case
- N: common case x morphologically marked possessive case
- PRO: marked subject case x object case x possessive case (possessive PRO)
- x you and it not marked for case
- formal: PRO following the verb be, i.e. not followed by the finite V form > subject case
- x colloquial: ... > object case: it's all right, it's only me
(2) gender
- manifested in 3rd person SG personal/reflexive/possessive PRO
- relative/interrogative PRO: personal (who) x non-personal gender (which)
(3) number
- manifested in special lexical entry: I > we; he/she/it > they
- x exceptional regular PL formation by the –(e)s ending: yourself > yourselves; other > others; one > ones
- demonstrative PRO: SG this > PL these; SG that > PL those
(4) person
- manifested in personal/reflexive/possessive PRO
- 1st person = the speaker
- 2nd person = the addressee
- 3rd person = "the rest"
- colloquial: you/they = also with the meaning of a general human agent (you change three times/where do they sell it?)
- formal: we/one = ... (one doesn't like to have one's word doubted)
(15.1.3) Reference
- a linguistic context > anaphors = bound within the minimal domain by subject, need a co-referential antecedent
- a pragmatic c. > pronouns = free within the minimal domain x bound by clause-external context
- anaphoric reference = reference to an antecedent already mentioned in the clause before
- cataphoric r. = reference to an antecedent to be mentioned in the clause (absent in CZ)
(15.2) Classification of Pronouns
(A) According to Dušková
(1) central
(a) personal: me, we, ...
(b) reflexive: myself, ourselves, ...
(c) possessive
(a’) determinative (pre-nominal): your, its, ...
(b’) independent (post-nominal): mine, hers, its?, ...
(2) reciprocal: each other, one another
(3) relative: the wh- series, that
(4) interrogative: the wh- series
(5) demonstrative: this/that, these/those
(6) indefinite
(a) positive
(a’) universal: all/both, each/every
(b’) assertive: some-, one, half, several, enough, other, another
(c’) non-assertive: any-, either
(b) negative: no-, neither
- Central PRO: different syntactic functions x the same morphological features
(B) According to Quirk/Greenbaum
(I) specific
(1) central
(a) personal
(b) reflexive
(c) possessive
(d) reciprocal
(2) non-central
(e) relative
(f) interrogative
(g) demonstrative
(II) indefinite
(h) universal
(i) partitive
(j) quantifying
(15.2.1) Personal Pronouns
- functions of 3rd per. SG it
(a) can replace a N with both definite and indefinite determination
- x ... N with an indefinite determination only with a co-referential antecedent: I've bought a new hat but my husband doesn't like it
- ... not a co-referential antecedent > the pro-form one: I've bought a new hat and Jane has bought one too
(b) a "place holder" = a formal substitute in the position of the subject: it's raining/snowing/warm
- CZ: one-member subjectless clauses x not possible in E
(15.2.2) Reflexive Pronouns
- SG -self or PL -selves + 1st and 2nd pers. PRO in possessive case
- ... + 3rd per. PRO in object case
(1) non-emphatic use
- PRO co-referential with the subject = the action expressed by the verb passes from the subject back again to the subject
- typically takes the position of the object
- functions
(a) a direct object: he shaves himself
(b) an indirect object: she bought herself a new hat
(c) a part of the predicate: ah, that's better, you're yourself again
(d) used as an adjective: she wants a little time to herself
(e) used as an adverb: speak for yourself
(f) with reflexive verbs: absent oneself from, pride oneself on, behave yourself, introduce oneself, excuse oneself, underestimate oneself
(2) emphatic use
- PRO not necessarily co-referential with the subject
- typically takes the position of apposition > after the emphasised sentence member: the gift will be presented by the head-mistress herself
- pronounced with an emphatic stress
(15.2.3) Possessive Pronouns
(a) determinative = an attributive function (pre-nominal)
(b) independent = nominal function (post-nominal)
- E: possessives also used to refer to parts of the body (he broke his leg) x CZ: absent
- determinative possessives in complementary distribution with articles
- special structures
(a) the structure N + of + POSS when need to use another determiner besides the possessive: a friend of mine (implies one out of many)
(b) POSS in the function of subject: ours was not an intimate acquaintance
(15.2.4) Reciprocal Pronouns
- each other = implies only two
- one another = implies more than two
- x CZ: reciprocal pronouns identical with reflexive pronouns
(15.2.5) Relative Pronouns
- who (whom, whose), which, that
- compound relative pronouns: whichever, whatever, whoever
- distinction of person (who/that) x non-person (which/that)
- distinction of restrictive (who/which/that/0) x non-restrictive (who/which)
- who: personal antecedent x whose: also non-persons (NOT the interrogative whose!)
- which: non-personal antecedent/sentence antecedent
- that: restrictive relative clause (they live in a house that was build in 1600)
- who/which: can be preceded by a PREP x that: the PREP postponed to the sentence end (here is the car about which I told you x here is the car that I told you about)
(15.2.6) Interrogative Pronouns
- who, which, what
- used to form questions
- functions: determiners (whose idea was it?)/nominals (whom did she marry?)
- distinction of person (who/which/what) x non-person (which/what)
- which (= which of): implies a choice from a restricted set of possibilities
- what (= what kind of): asks for characteristics or description
- what related to persons can refer only to the nominal part of the predicate (what is he [what's his profession]? what is he like? x who is he [what's his name]?)
- what: usually with a postponed PREP (what are you hinting at?)
(15.2.7) Demonstrative Pronouns
- SG this/that > PL these/those
- functions: both determiners (pass me that box please)/nominals (what is this?)
- this, these = "near" reference x that, those = "distant" reference
- this: both anaphoric (The story is greatly exaggerated. At least that's what he told me.) and cataphoric reference (I know this much, that his story is greatly exaggerated.)
- that: anaphoric reference only
(15.2.8) Universal Pronouns
- all, every, every- (-one, -body, -thing), each, both
(1) all
- semantics: unity or collectivness
- co-occurrence: SG/PL; count/non-count; person/non-person
- function: determiner (all the money is spent)/nominal (all is lost)
(2) every
- semantics: individual items in a collective > with 3+ items
- co-occurence: SG; count; person/non-person
- function: determiner (the explosion broke every window in the street)
(3) each
- semantics: individuals items in a collective taken one by one > with 2+ items
- co-occurence: SG; count; person/non-person
- function: determiner (each person signed the paper)/nominal (each must do his best)
(4) both
- semantics > with 2 items
- co-occurence: PL; count; person/non-person
- function: determiner (both the men were found guilty)/nominal (both were found guilty)
(15.2.9) Partitive Pronouns (Quirk) / Existential and Negative Quantifiers (Dušková)
- some and its compounds (-body, -one, -thing)
- any and its compounds (...)
- no and its compounds (nobody, no one, nothing, none)
- other (the other, another, others, the others)
- either and neither
(1) some
- semantics: an indefinite quantity or number (PL or non-count: I spilt some milk on the table)/a particular but unidentified person or thing (SG count: some fool has overran my cat)
- co-occurrence: SG/PL; count/non-count; person/non-person
- function: determiner (he wants some money)/nominal (if you have no money, I lend you some)
- use: affirmatives, interrogatives when expecting affirmation
(2) any
- semantics: no matter what (emphatic use: come any day you like)/an indefinite quantity or number (non-emphatic use: is there any coffee left?)
- co-occurrence: SG/PL; count/non-count; person/non-person
- function: determiner/nominal
- use: negative sentences, interrogatives, conditionals
(3) no
- co-occurrence: SG/PL; count/non-count; person/non-person
- function: determiner (there is no coffee left)
(4) nobody, no one, nothing, none
- co-occurence: SG
- function: nominal (nothing happened)
(5) other
- form: a countable pronoun with inflectional morphology
- = the second of two: the other + SG verb/the other + SG noun (one of my brothers is named X, the other Y/give me the other book)
- = the remaining ones: the others + PL verb/the other + PL noun
- = different or additional ones: others + PL verb/other + PL noun (some like milk chocolate, others prefer plain chocolate/there are other ways of doing this)
(6) either/neither
- co-occurence: SG; countable; person/non-person
- function: determiner/nominal
- either = one or the other of two (either method can be used); both (I haven't seen either of them)
- neither = not this and not the other (neither of the two statements is correct)
(15.2.10) Quantifying Pronouns
- many/few; much/little; several, enough, one
(1) many (more, most)/few
- co-occurence: PL; count
- function: determiner (have you many books?)/nominal (no, I have few)
(2) much (more, most)/little
- co-occurrence: SG; count/non-count
- function: determiner (we have not much time)/nominal (much has been said, and little done)
(3) several
- co-occurence: PL; countable
- function: determiner (I have seen several of them)/nominal (he made several mistakes)
(4) enough
- co-occurence: PL; countable/non-countable
- function: determiner (have you got enough food?)/nominal (yes, we have enough)
(5) one
- = a numerical stressed variant of the indefinite article: one boy disappeared yesterday
- = a substitute for a SG or PL countable noun: I thought you prefer large ones
- = a substitute for a general human agent: one can never be careful enough
Literature
Dušková, Libuše, et al. Mluvnice současné angličtiny na pozadí češtiny. Praha: Academia, 2003.
Svoboda, Aleš, and Mária Opělová Károlyová. A Brief Survey of the English Morphology. Ostrava: Ostravská univerzita, 1993.
Other Sources
Veselovská, Ludmila. Přednášky a semináře: Morfologie 2. ZS 2003/04.
Veselovská, Ludmila. Přednášky a semináře: Syntax 1 a 2. ZS a LS 2003/04.