Modals.

Can  vs. Be Able To

Can

> general ability in PRESENT (Can you play the piano?)

+ verbs of seeing, noticing, understanding etc. (feel, hear, see, smell, taste) (She could see what Rhoda meant.)

+ passive infinitive (The video can be rented from your local store.)

+ past + NEG (He left before we could stop him.)

Be Able To

> specific achievement in PAST (narrower meaning) (Despite yesterday’s snowfalls, we were able to drive home in less than an hour.)

+ future (You’ll be able to get a taxi outside the station.)

+ perfect (I haven’t been able to get much work done today.)

+ infinitive (She’d love to be able to play the piano.)

Can/Be Able To

> possibility/opportunity (Can you / Are you able to come on Saturday?)

E x e r c i s e :

She could/was able to fall asleep anywhere when she was young, but no she’s more particular about her bed.

- general ability/past

‘Oh, shut up, Rhoda,’ said Apricot, embarrassed, but she could/*was able to see what Rhoda meant.

- verb of understanding

He was very clever. He could/was able to speak three languages at the age of seven.

- general ability/past

When she was the manager of the company, she could/*was able to take holidays when she wanted to.

- permission

Despite yesterday’s snowfalls, we *could/were able to drive home in less than an hour.

- specific achievement in past

We couldn’t/weren’t able to swim across the river to the opposite bank because of the raging torrents.

- possibility/specific achievement in past

He couldn’t/*wasn’t able to help it and grinned.

- negation + past

He left before we could/*were able to stop him.

- negation + past

 

May  vs. Might  vs. Can  vs. Could

Can

> ability (Can he cook?)

> general possibility in the PRESENT (I can’t promise anything, but I’ll do what I can.)

> permission (We can’t wear jeans at work.)

> doubt or surprise (Can he be serious?)

> peculiar quality (He can be very tactless sometimes.)

> suggestion (We can eat in a restaurant, if you like.)

+ NEG belief sth is not true (That can’t be Mary – she’s in New York.)

Could

> (im)possibility (You couldn’t have left it on the bus, could you?)

> permission (Could I use your phone, please?)

> question (Could you babysit for us on Friday?)

> suggestion (We could write a letter to the director.)

> IDM: expressing strong emotions (I’m so fed up I could scream!)

May

> (im)possibility (That may or may not be true.)

> stating sth is true before introducing another POV (He may be a good father but he’s a terrible husband.)

> formal: permission (May I come in?)

> formal: question (May I ask why you took that decision?)

> formal: expression of wishes (May she rest in peace.)

> IDM: ‘be that as it may’ = in spite of that (I know he has tried hard; be that as it may, his work is not good enough.)

Might

> (im)possibility (He might get there in time, but I can’t be sure.)

> formal: suggestion (You might try calling the help desk.)

> formal: permission (Might I use your phone?)

> formal: question (And who might she be?)

E x e r c i s e :

Don’t wait for me, I may/might/*can/could be late.

- possibility > ‘may’/‘might’/‘could’

Now I’m the boss: I *may/*might/can/*could be late if I want to be.

- permission > ‘can’

He *may/*might/can/*could be very amusing, but last night he was dull.

- peculiar quality > ‘can’

He may/*might/*can/*could be very amusing, but I don’t like his jokes.

- stating sth is true before introducing another POV > ‘may’

You may/might/*can/*could be asked to make a speech.

- possibility > ‘may’/‘might’

Don’t throw away the bottle: It may/might/*can/could come in handy.

- possibility > ‘may’/‘might’/‘could’

I may/might/*can/*could be wrong, but I still believe than anyone *may/*might/can/*could make a mistake.

- possibility > ‘may’/‘might’; general possibility > ‘can’

 

May Have –ed  vs. Might Have –ed  vs. Could Have –ed

- may/might + past perfect >> 50 to 50 probability/lesser probability

- might/could + past perfect >> past action didn’t take place

- could + past perfect >> chance/occasion in the past

E x e r c i s e :

Call the ambulance: I think he may/might/*could have broken his left leg.

- probability > ‘may’/‘might’

When you were in London, you may/might/could have noticed the double-deckers.

- probability/past action didn’t take place/occasion in the past > ‘may’/‘might’/‘could’

Do you know who broke the window? It *may/*might/could have been anyone.

- occasion in the past > ‘could’

Stupid child! You *may/might/could have killed yourself!

- past action didn’t take place/occasion in the past > ‘might’/‘could’

I couldn’t believe what he’d just said to me. I *may/*might/could have killed him.

- IDM: expressing strong emotions > ‘could’

He visited him to tell him in person what he *may/might/could have told him over the phone.

- past action didn’t take place/occasion in the past > ‘could’

 

Must  vs. Have To  vs. Have Got To

Must (BrE)

> obligation in the mind of the speaker

> formal situation

> suggestion, invitation or recommendation

> opinion

> logical necessity

Have To (AmE)

> obligation from an external authority

Have Got To

> informal situation

Obligations

You must do what you think is right.

- suggestion > ‘must’

It is with the greatest regret, therefore, that I must inform you that you do not fulfil our requirements.

- formal situation > ‘must’

We must have a drink!

- invitation > ‘must’

Sometimes you have to join forces with those you’d rather avoid.

- obligation from an external authority > ‘have to’

I must/have to/have got to go back.

- obligation in the mind of the speaker/obligation from an external authority/informal situation > ‘must’/‘have to’/‘have got to’

Does he have to eat that in front of us?

- obligation from an external authority > ‘have to’

Dogs must be kept on leash.

- formal situation > ‘must’

Opinions

It must be nearly time to leave.

- logical necessity/opinion > ‘must’

You must be very upset about what you heard yesterday.

- logical necessity/opinion > ‘must’

He knew he must look very stupid.

- logical necessity/opinion > ‘must’

You must be joking.

- logical necessity/opinion > ‘must’

 

Had To  vs. Must Have –ed

- had to >> obligation

- must have -ed >> logical necessity

E x e r c i s e :

You must have suspected something!

- logical necessity > ‘must have –ed’

He said something must have happened when he saw my pale face.

- logical necessity > ‘must have –ed’

- x He said something would have to happen when he saw my pale face. = ‘would have to be done’ (‘something has to be done’; ‘something has to happen’)

I had to ask for a new fork because I had dropped it.

- obligation > ‘had to’

Never mind. Somebody had to lose. Shall we play again?

- obligation > ‘had to’ = ‘was bound to’

I didn’t understand him, but he must have said something funny because everybody was laughing.

- logical necessity > ‘must have –ed’

Jane was not popular: in order to be popular, you had to be good at games, and Jane was useless at all of them.

- obligation > ‘had to’

To be eligible for the study, women had to be British, married, and aged 25-39 years.

- obligation > ‘had to’

She must have been beautiful once.

- logical necessity > ‘must have –ed’

 

Mustn’t  vs. Needn’t  vs. Don’t Have To  vs. Don’t Need To

- mustn’t >> not permitted

- don’t / didn’t have to >> not necessary in general

- needn’t / needn’t have –ed >> permitted by the speaker / only PHR

- don’t / didn’t need to >> not necessary specifically

E x e r c i s e :

You mustn’t/*needn’t/*don’t have to/*don’t need to walk on grass here.

- not permitted > ‘mustn’t’

You *mustn’t/needn’t/don’t have to/*don’t need to go into details now.

- not necessary in general/permitted by the speaker > ‘don’t have to’/‘needn’t’

You *mustn’t/?needn’t/don’t have to/*don’t need to have your hair cut.

- permitted by the speaker/not necessary in general > ‘needn’t’/‘don’t have to’

You *mustn’t/*needn’t/don’t have to/don’t need to be over 18 to get into a disco.

- not necessary in general/not necessary specifically > ‘don’t have to’/‘don’t need to’

They phoned to say that they couldn’t come to eat, so I *mustn’t/*needn’t/*don’t have to/don’t need to cook dinner.

- not necessary specifically > ‘don’t need to’

 

Shall  vs. Should  vs. Ought To

Shall

> interrogative sentences

> declarative sentences in special context only (legal documents)

Should

> implies the statement is not the case / expresses doubts

> replaces ‘would’

> special use for emphasis

> more frequent (easier in questions / NEG)

Ought to

> general statement

> rare

General Use

You *shall/should/ought to be more careful.

- implies the statement is not the case/general statement > ‘should’/‘ought to’

You *shall/should/ought to help your parents.

- implies the statement is not the case/general statement > ‘should’/‘ought to’

Shall/*Should/*Ought to we have a look around?

- interrogative sentence > ‘shall’

They *shall/should/ought to be here soon. It’s almost eight.

- implies the statement is not the case/general statement > ‘should’/‘ought to’

I don’t know whether I *shall/should/*ought to say what I did.

- expresses doubts [‘did’ = lexical] > ‘should’

- I don’t know whether I should have said what I did [say]. [‘did’ = proform]

I *shall/should/*ought to appreciate it if you would have a few words with her.

- replaces ‘would’ > ‘should’

Special Use

Most unfortunate that it *shall/should/*ought to happen on Christmas Day.

- special use for emphasis > ‘should’

= ‘A to se musí stát zrovna na Štědrý den.’

Funny you *shall/should/*ought to mention it.

- special use for emphasis > ‘should’

 

Special Use of Would  vs. Will

- will >> special use for modality (= ‘certainly’)

- would >> special use for emphasis (= ‘not want to’)

E x e r c i s e :

The car wouldn’t start.

= ‘nechce nastartovat’

Did you tell him? I did, but he wouldn’t listen.

= ‘nechce to slyšet’

Readers of this column will be aware that Mr Hayes was once a fierce critic of the Government’s running of the health service.

= ‘jsou si určitě vědomi’

- ‘will be aware’ = ‘must be certainly aware’

- special use for modality > ‘will’

‘You ¹will notice/²will have noticed, Admiral,’ Talbot said, ‘how devoted the Ariadne’s officers are to their duty.’

- ¹‘will notice’ = refers to future, no modality

- ²‘will have noticed’ = refers to past, modality

- ³‘will have done’ = future perfect + time specification

- special use for modality > ‘will’

 

Obligations

‘Must’ is used when there is a strong obligation in the mind of the speaker or person being talked about.

‘Have to’ is used when the obligation comes from an external authority or someone else.

‘Should’ is used to talk about rights/responsibilities/obligations which are not strong.

‘Mustn’t’ expresses the idea that someone disapproves of something or is strictly forbidden.

‘Needn’t’ expresses the idea that there is no law or requirement to make you do something.

 

Assumptions

‘May’/‘Might’/‘Could’ mean that there is a specific possibility something will happen. Only ‘could’ is used to asked in questions with this meaning.

‘Can’ means that something is generally possible, i.e. not unusual.

‘Must’ is used when you are certain something is true or going to happen.

‘Should’/‘Ought to’ expresses the idea that you expect something is likely happen.

‘May not’ expresses the idea that it is possible something will not happen or is not true.

‘Can’t’ means that you are sure something is not possible or true.

He can’t make it. x He may not make it. = Nestihne to. x Možná to nestihne.